有效交流名詞解釋x

Chapter1

senders:

persons who formulate, encode, and transmit a message

receivers:

persons who receive, decode, and interpret a message

message:

the content of a communicative act

Channels:

media through which messages are sent

noise:

anything that interferes with or distorts the ability to send and receive me s sages

context:

the setting

feedback:

information returned to a message source

positive feedback:

a behavior-enhancing response

negative feedback :

a response that extinguishes behavior in progress

effect:

the communication outcome

need for inclusion

the need for social contact

need for control

the need to feel we are capable and responsible

need for affection

the need to express and receive love

Chapter2

globalization: the increasing economic, political, and cultural integration and interdependence of ?diverse cultures

diversity: the recognition and valuing of difference

multiculturalism: engagement with and respect toward people from distinctly different cultures

interracial communication: interpreting and sharing meanings with individuals from different cultures

interethnic communication: ?interaction with individuals of different ethnic origins

international communication: communication between persons representing different nations

intracultural communication: interaction with members of the same racial or ethnic group or co-culture as yours

melting-pot philosophy: the view that different cultures should be assimilated into the dominant culture

cultural pluralism: adherence to the principle of cultural relativism

culturally confused： lacking an understanding of cultural difference

cultural imperialism： the expansion of dominion of one culture over another culture

ethnocentrism

the tendency to see one’s own culture as superior to all others

cultural relativism

the acceptance of other cultural groups as equal in value to one’s own

prejudice

a positive or negative prejudgment

culture

a system of knowledge, beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, and artifacts that

are acquired, shared, and used by members during daily living

co-cultures

groups of persons who differ in some ethnic or sociological way from the

parent culture

assimilation

the means by which co-culture members attempt to fit in with members of the dominant culture

accommodation

the means by which co-culture members maintain their cultural identity while striving to establish relationships with members of the dominant culture

separation

the means co-culture members use to resist interacting with members of the dominant culture

high-context communication

a tradition-bound communication system which depends on indirectness

low-context communication

a system that encourages directness in communication

high-power-distance cultures

cultures based on power differences in which subordinates defer to superiors

low-power-distance cultures

cultures that believe that power should be used only when legitimate

masculine cultures：

cultures that value aggressiveness, strength, and material symbols of success

feminine cultures：

cultures that value tenderness and relationships

Among highly masculine cultures are Japan, Italy, Germany, Mexico, and Great Britain. Among highly ,feminine cultures are Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, Thailand, and Chile.

Chapter3

perception

the process by which we make sense out of experience

selective perception

the means of interpreting experience in a way that conforms to one’s beliefs, expectations, and convictions

selective exposure

the tendency to expose oneself to information that reaffirms existing attitudes, beliefs, and values

selective attention

the tendency to focus on certain cues and ignore others

selective retention

the tendency to remember those things that reinforce one’s way of thinking and forget those that oppose one’s way of thinking

figure-ground principle

a strategy that facilitates the organization of stimuli by enabling us to focus on different stimuli alternately

perceptual schemata

constructs used to organize perceptions

closure:

the tendency to fill in missing perceptual pieces to perceive a complete world

self-awareness

the ability to reflect on and monitor one’s own behavior

self-concept

everything one thinks and feels about oneself

self-image

the sort of person one perceives oneself to be

self-efficacy

optimistic belief in one's own competence

self-fulfilling prophecy

a prediction or an expectation that comes true simply because one acts as if it were true

open area：

the part of the self containing information known to both the self and others

blind area：

the part of the self known to others but not known to oneself

hidden area：

the part of the self that contains Information about the self known to oneself but that is hidden from others

unknown area：

the part of the self that is unknown to oneself and others

impression management

the creation of a positive image designed to influence others

perceived self

the self we believe ourselves to be

facework

the means used to present a public image

presenting self

our public image

high self-monitors

people highly attuned to impression management efforts

low self-monitors

people who pay little attention to responses others have to them

perceptual sets:

expectations that produce a readiness to process experience in a predetermined way

halo effect:

the perceiving of qualities that are primarily positive

horn effect:

the perceiving of qualities that are primarily negative

first impressions:

initial judgments about people

predicted outcome value theory:

the theory that we form relationships based on whether we believe they are worth it

primacy effect:

the ability of one's first impression to color subsequent impressions

stereotype:

a generalization about people, places, or events held by many members of a society

prejudices:

a biased, negative attitude toward a particular group of people; a negative prejudgment based on membership in a social category

allness:

the erroneous belief that any one person can know all there is to know about anything

blindering:

the process by which one unconsciously adds restrictions that limit one's perceptual capabilities

fact:

that which is known to be true based on observation

inference:

an assumption with varying degrees of accuracy

empathy：

the experencing of the world from a perspective other than our own.

cultural nearsightedness：

the failure to understand that we do not all attribute the same meanings to similar behavioral clues

idiocentric:

exhibiting an individualistic orientation

allocentric:

exhibiting a collectivistic orientation

distinctiveness theory:

the theory stating that a person’s own distinctive traits are more salient to him or her than are the more prevalent traits possessed by others in the immediate environment

cultivation theory:

a theory propounded by George Gerbner and colleagues focusing on the mass media’s ability to influence users’ attitudes and perceptions of reality

chapter4

Language:

a unified system of symbols that permits the sharing of meaning

symbol:

that which represents something else

triangle of meaning:

a model that explains the relationship which exists among words, things, and thoughts

denotative meaning：

dictionary meaning; the objective or descriptive meaning of a word

connotative meaning：

subjective meaning; one’s personal meaning for a word

Jargon：

specialized vocabulary of technical terms shared by a community of users

Slang：

informal vocabulary that binds users together

bypassing：

miscommunication that occurs when individuals think they understand each other but actually miss each other’s meaning

polarization：

the use of either-or language and/or language that causes us to think in extremes

euphemism:

a pleasant word that is substituted for a less pleasant one

dominant culture：

the culture in power; the mainstream culture

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis：

the belief that the labels we use help shape the way we think, our worldview, and our behavior

Linguistic determinism：

the belief that language influences how we interpret the world

Linguistic relativity：

the belief that persons who speak different languages perceive the world differently

linguistic prejudice：

the use of prejudiced language

prejudiced language：

sexist, ageist, or racist language; language disparaging to the members of a co-culture

racial code words:

words that are discriminatory but not literally racist

qualifiers：

tentative phrases

tag questions:

questions that are midway between outright statements and yes-no questions

disclaimers:

remarks that diminish a statement’s importance

gender-lects:

Deborah Tannen’s term for language differences attributed to gender

chapter5

nonverbal communication：

the kinds of human messages and responses not expressed in words

mixed message：

message that occurs when words and actions contradict each other

Kinesics：

the study of the relationship between human body motion, or body language, and communication

paralanguage:

vocal cues that accompany spoken language

pitch:

the highness or lowness of the voice

habitual pitch:

the characteristic pitch one uses

volume:

the degree of loudness of the voice

rate:

speaking speed

silence:

the absence of both paralinguistic and verbal cues

informal space

space that is highly mobile and can be quickly changed

semi-fixed-feature space

space in which objects are used to create distance

fixed-feature space

space that contains relatively permanent objects

artifactual communication:

the use of personal adornments

Chronemics:

the study of the use of time

haptics:

the study of the use of touch

Olfactics:

the study of the sense of smell

visual dominance:

a measure calculated by comparing the percentage of looking while speaking with the percentage of looking while speaking with the percentage of looking while listening

contact cultures:

cultures that promote interaction and encourage displays of warmth, closeness, and availability

low-contact cultures:

cultures that maintain more distance when interacting

emoticons:

symbols that replace nonverbal cues during machine-assisted communication

chapter6

hearing:

the involuntary, physiological process by which we perceive sound

listening:

the deliberate, psychological process by which we receive, understand, and retain aural stimuli

mindfulness:

emptying one's mind of personal concerns and interfering emotions, and choosing to focus on the person and the here and now

serial communication:

a chain-of-command transmission

appreciative listening：

listening for enjoyment or relaxation

comprehensive listening：

listening to gain knowledge

critical listening：

listening to evaluate the worth of a message

empathic listening：

listening to help others

red-flag words:

words that trigger emotional deafness, dropping listening efficiency to zero

speech-thought differential:

the difference between speaking and thinking rates

critical thinking：

the careful and deliberate process of message evaluation

people-oriented listener:

focused on emotions and connections

content-oriented listener:

focused on what is said

action-oriented listener:

focused on task and outcomes

time-oriented listener:

focused on time limitations

dialogic listening:

listening that focuses on what happens to people as they respond to each other

chapter7

FIRO：

William Schutz’s theory focused on how relationships meet inclusion, control, and affection needs

inclusion：

the need for social contact

loneliness：

the perceived discrepancy between desired and achieved social relationships

control:

the need to feel we are capable and responsible and are able to exert power and influence in our relationships

affection:

the need to experience emotionally close relationships

serial construction of meaning model：

Duck’s observation that commonality, mutuality, and the equivalence of our evaluation result in shared meaning.

phatic communication：

communication designed to open the channels of communication

grapevine：

a type of informal, conversational network existing in organizations

gossip mill：

the network through which unverified information is spread

breadth:

the number of topics you discuss with another person

depth:

a measure of how central the topics you discuss with another person are to your self-concept

social penetration theory:

the theory that states that our relationships begin with relatively narrow breadth and shallow depth and develop over time

self-disclosure:

the process of revealing to another person information about the self that he or she would not otherwise know

communication privacy management theory:

theory that describes the establishment of the boundaries and borders that we decide others may or may not cross

Initiating:

the relationship stage during which contact is first made

experimenting:

the relationship stage during which we begin to probe the unknown, often through the exchange of small talk

intensifying：

the relationship stage during which two people become good friends

integrating：

the relationship stage in which two people are identified as a couple

bonding：

the relationship stage in which two people make a formal commitment to each other

differentiating：

the relationship stage in which two people identified as a couple seek to regain unique identities

circumscribing:

the relationship stage in which both the quality and the quantity of communication between two people decrease

stagnating:

the relationship stage during which communication is at a standstill

avoiding:

the relationship stage during which the participants intentionally avoid contact

termination:

the relationship stage during which the relationship ends

cost-benefit/social exchange theory

the theory that we work to maintain a relationship as long as the benefits we receive outweigh the costs

comparison level

an expectation of the kinds of rewards and profits we believe we ought to derive from a relationship

comparison level for alternatives

the comparing of rewards derived from a current relationship with ones we expect to get from an alternative relationship

equivocate：

use purposefully vague language to finesse a response

tolerance of vulnerability:

the degree of trust you place in another person to accept information you disclose without hurting you or the relationship

hurtful messages:

messages designed to upset or to cause emotional pain that further hampers trust

distance relating

relating with persons via e-mail, chat rooms, and instant messages

chapter8

complementarity:

the attraction principle which states that opposites attract

acquaintanceships:

relationships with persons we know by name and with whom we converse when the chance arises

role-limited interaction: the beginning stage of friendship

friendly relations: the friendship stage in which we explore whether we have enough in common to continue building a relationship

moving toward friendship: the friendship stage in which we make small personal disclosures demonstrating the desire to expand our relationship

nascent friendship: the friendship stage that finds us considering each other friends

stabilized friendship: the friendship stage in which we decide that our friendship is secure and will continue

waning friendship: the friendship stage during which friends begin to drift apart

toxic communication:?

the consistent use of verbal abuse and/or physical or sexual aggression or violence

emotional intelligence:

the ability to motivate oneself, to control impulses, to recognize and regulate one’s moods, to empathize, and to hope

emotional contagion:

the catching of another person’s mood

emotional isolationists:

persons who seek to avoid situations that may require the exchange of feelings

conflict:

perceived disagreement

self-conflict:

the type of conflict that occurs when a person has to choose between two or more mutually exclusive options

intrapersonal conflict:

internal conflict

interpersonal conflict:

conflict between two or more people

low-intensity conflict: a conflict in which the persons involved work to discover a solution beneficial to all parties

medium-intensity conflict: a conflict in which each person feels committed to win, but winning is seen as sufficient

high-intensity conflict: a conflict in which one person intends to destroy or seriously hurt the other

pseudoconflict:

the situation that results when persons mistakenly believe that two or more goals cannot be achieved simultaneously

content conflict:

a disagreement over matters of fact

value conflict:

a disagreement that arises when persons hold different views on an issue

ego conflict:

a disagreement in which persons believe that winning or losing is tied to their self-worth, prestige, or competence

nonassertiveness:

the hesitation to display one’s feelings and thoughts

assertiveness:

the expressing of one’s thoughts and feelings while displaying respect for the thoughts and feelings of others

DESC script:

an acronym—Describe, Express, Specify, and Consequences—behaviors that promote self-assertion.

flames: online insults

chapter9

group: a collection of individuals who interact verbally and nonverbally, occupy certain roles with respect to one another, and cooperate to accomplish a goal

quality circles: small groups of employees who meet regularly to discuss organizational life and the quality of their work environment

self-directed: teams autonomous groups of employees empowered to make decisions and supervise themselves

group goals: a group’s motivation for existing

group structure: group member positions and roles performed

group patterns of communication: patterns of message flow in a group

group norms: informal rules for interaction in a group

group climate: the emotional atmosphere of a group

group role-classification model: a model that describes functions participants should seek to assume and to avoid in groups

task roles: group roles designed to help the group achieve its goals

maintenance roles: group roles designed to ensure the smooth running of a group

self-serving roles: group roles that impede the functioning of a group by preventing members from working together effectively

cooperative goal structure: a goal structure in which the members of a group work together to achieve their objectives

competitive goal structure: a goal structure in which members hinder one another’s efforts to obtain a goal

decision by consensus: a decision that all members understand and will support, reached as a result of members’ voicing feelings and airing differences

questions of fact: questions involving the truth or falsity of a statement

questions of value: questions involving subjective judgments

questions of policy: questions designed to help determine future actions

brainstorming: a technique designed to generate ideas

killer phrases: comments that stop the flow of ideas

killer looks: looks that discourage or inhibit the generation of ideas

chapter10

leadership: the ability to influence others

designated leader: a person given the authority to exert influence within a group

achieved leader: a person who exhibits leadership without being appointed

type X leader: a leader who does not trust group members to work and is unconcerned with the personal achievement of group members

type Y leader: a leader who displays trust in group members and is concerned with their sense of personal achievement

autocratic , or authoritarian, leaders: directive leaders

laissez-faire leader: a nondirective leader

democratic leaders: leaders who represent a reasonable compromise between authoritarian and laissez-faire leaders

trait theory: the theory of leadership asserting that certain people are born to lead

situational theory: the theory of leadership asserting that leadership depends on the situation

functional theory: the leadership theory suggesting that